Rasmussen Surname Meaning and Family History

Rasmussen Surname Meaning and Family History Rasmussen is a patronymic surname meaning son of Rasmus, a Scandinavian form of the personal name Erasmus. Erasmus derives from the Greek ÃŽ µÃ ÃŽ ±ÃÆ'ÃŽ ¼ÃŽ ¹ÃŽ ¿Ãâ€šÃ‚  (erasmios) which means beloved.   Spellings of Rasmussen that end in -sen are most likely Danish or Norwegian in origin, while those that end in -son could be Swedish, Dutch, North German, or Norwegian. Rasmussen is the 9th most popular surname in Denmark  and the 41st most common last name in Norway. Surname Origin:  Danish, Norwegian, North German, Dutch Alternate Surname Spellings: RASMUSEN, RASMUSON, RASMUSSON, RASMUS   Famous People with the Surname RASMUSSEN: Saint Erasmus (Saint Elmo) - 4th-century martyr and patron saint of sailors.Theodore Rasmussen - Canadian neurosurgeon and scientist who gave his name to the rare disease, Rasmussens encephalitis.  Knud Rasmussen - Greenlandic anthropologist and polar explorer; the first European to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sledScott Rasmussen - co-founder of the sports television network ESPNLars and Jens Rasmussen - brothers and creators of Google Maps Where is the RASMUSSEN Surname Most Common? Considering its Scandinavian origins, its not surprising that Rasmussen is most prevalent today in Denmark, where it ranks as the 8th most common surname in the country. Surname distribution data from Forebears also identifies the surnames popularity in Norway, where it ranks 41st, as well as the Faroe Islands (12th) and Greenland (10th). WorldNames PublicProfiler also indicates that Rasmussen is by far most commonly used by people living in Denmark. Norway comes in a distant second. Within Denmark, the surname is found most frequently in Fyn and Stà ¸rstrom, followed by Aarhus, Vestsjà ¦lland, Vejle, Roskilde, Frederiksborg, Kà ¸benhavn, Bornholm and Staden Kà ¸benhavn. Genealogy Resources for the Surname RASMUSSEN Rasmussen Family Crest - Its Not What You Think: Contrary to what you may hear, there is no such thing as a Rasmussen family crest or coat of arms for the Rasmussen surname.  Coats of arms are granted to individuals, not families, and may rightfully be used only by the uninterrupted male-line descendants of the person to whom the coat of arms was originally granted.Rasmussen DNA Project: Rasmussen is a Scandinavian patronymic surname, meaning that your DNA matches will not necessarily (or likely) even be people named Rasmussen. This project will help you determine which Scandinavian and/or haplogroup projects are best to join for research into your Rasmussen heritage.RASMUSSEN Family Genealogy Forum: This free message board is focused on descendants of Rasmussen  ancestors around the world. Search the forum for posts about your Rasmussen ancestors, or join the forum and post your own queries.  FamilySearch - RASMUSSEN  Genealogy: Explore over 1.5  million  results from di gitized  historical records and lineage-linked family trees related to the Rasmussen surname on this free website hosted by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. RASMUSSEN Surname Mailing List: Free mailing list for researchers of the Rasmussen surname and its variations includes subscription details and searchable archives of past messages.GeneaNet - Rasmussen Records: GeneaNet includes archival records, family trees, and other resources for individuals with the Rasmussen surname, with a concentration on records and families from France and other European countries.The Rasmussen Genealogy and Family Tree Page: Browse genealogy records and links to genealogical and historical records for individuals with the Rasmussen surname from the website of Genealogy Today.Ancestry.com: Rasmussen Surname: Explore over 1.4  million digitized records and database entries, including census records, passenger lists, military records, land deeds, probates, wills and other records for the Rasmussen surname on the subscription-based website, Ancestry.com.

The Battle of Peleliu in World War II

The Battle of Peleliu in World War II The Battle of Peleliu was fought September 15 to November 27, 1944, during World War II (1939-1945). Part of the Allies island-hopping strategy, it was believed that Peleliu needed to be captured before operations could commence against either the Philippines or Formosa. While planners had originally believed that the operation would only require a few days, it ultimately took over two months to secure the island as its nearly 11,000 defenders retreated into a system of interconnected bunkers, strong points, and caves. The garrison exacted a heavy price on the attackers and the Allied effort quickly became a bloody, grinding affair. On November 27, 1944, after weeks of bitter fighting, Peleliu was declared secure. Background Having advanced across the Pacific after victories at Tarawa, Kwajalein, Saipan, Guam, and Tinian, Allied leaders reached a crossroads regarding future strategy. While General Douglas MacArthur favored advancing into the Philippines to make good his promise to liberate that country, Admiral Chester W. Nimitz preferred to capture Formosa and Okinawa, which could serve springboards for future operations against China and Japan. Flying to Pearl Harbor, President Franklin Roosevelt met with both commanders before ultimately electing to follow MacArthurs recommendations. As part of the advance to the Philippines, it was believed that Peleliu in the Palau Islands needed to be captured to secure the Allies right flank (Map). Fast Facts: Battle of Peleliu Conflict: World War II (1939-1945)Dates: September 15 to November 27, 1944Armies Commanders:AlliesMajor General William RupertusRear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf1st Marine Division (17,490 men), 81st Infantry Division (10,994 men)Japanese:Colonel Kunio Nakagawaapprox. 11,000 menCasualties:Allies: 2,336 killed and 8,450 wounded/missingJapanese: 10,695 killed and 202 captured The Allied Plan Responsibility for the invasion was given to Major General Roy S. Geigers III Amphibious Corps and Major General William Rupertuss 1st Marine Division was assigned to make the initial landings. Supported by naval gunfire from Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorfs ships offshore, the Marines were to assault beaches on the southwest side of the island. Going ashore, the plan called for the 1st Marine Regiment to land to the north, the 5th Marine Regiment in the center, and the 7th Marine Regiment in the south. Hitting the beach, the 1st and 7th Marines would cover the flanks as the 5th Marines drove inland to capture Pelelius airfield. This done, the 1st Marines, led by Colonel Lewis Chesty Puller were to turn north and attack the islands highest point, Umurbrogol Mountain. In assessing the operation, Rupertus expected to secure the island in a matter of days. Colonel Lewis Chesty Puller, 1950. US Marine Corps A New Plan The defense of Peleliu was overseen by Colonel Kunio Nakagawa. Following a string of defeats, the Japanese began to reassess their approach to island defense. Rather than attempting to halt Allied landings on the beaches, they devised a new strategy which called for islands to be heavily fortified with strong points and bunkers. These were to be connected by caves and tunnels which would allow troops to be safely shifted with ease to meet each new threat. To support this system, troops would make limited counterattacks rather than the reckless banzai charges of the past. While efforts would be made to disrupt enemy landings, this new approach sought to bleed the Allies white once they were ashore. The key to Nakagawas defenses were over 500 caves in the Umurbrogol Mountain complex. Many of these were further fortified with steel doors and gun emplacements. At the north of the Allies intended invasion beach, the Japanese tunneled through a 30-foot high coral ridge and installed a variety of guns and bunkers. Known as The Point, the Allies had no knowledge of the ridges existence as it did not show on existing maps. In addition, the islands beaches were heavily mined and strewn with a variety of obstacles to hamper potential invaders. Unaware of the change in Japanese defensive tactics, Allied planning moved forward as normal and the invasion of Peleliu was dubbed Operation Stalemate II. A Chance to Reconsider To aid in operation, Admiral William Bull Halseys carriers commenced a series of raids in the Palaus and Philippines. These met little Japanese resistance led him to contact Nimitz on September 13, 1944, with several suggestions. First, he recommended that the attack on Peleliu be abandoned as unneeded and that the assigned troops be given to MacArthur for operations in the Philippines. He also stated that the invasion of the Philippines should begin immediately. While leaders in Washington, DC agreed to move up the landings in the Philippines, they elected to push forward with the Peleliu operation as Oldendorf had begun the pre-invasion bombardment on September 12 and troops were already arriving in the area. Going Ashore As Oldendorfs five battleships, four heavy cruisers, and four light cruisers pounded Peleliu, carrier aircraft also struck targets across the island. Expending a massive amount of ordnance, it was believed that the garrison was completely neutralized. This was far from the case as the new Japanese defense system survived nearly untouched. At 8:32 AM on September 15, the 1st Marine Division began their landings. The first wave of LVTs moves toward the invasion beaches, passing through the inshore bombardment line of LCI gunboats. Cruisers and battleships are bombarding from the distance. The landing area is almost totally hidden in dust and smoke. US Naval History and Heritage Command Coming under heavy fire from batteries at either end of the beach, the division lost many LVTs (Landing Vehicle Tracked) and DUKWs forcing large numbers of Marines to wade ashore. Pushing inland, only the 5th Marines made any substantial progress. Reaching the edge of the airfield, they succeeded in turning back a Japanese counterattack consisting of tanks and infantry (Map). A Bitter Grind The next day, the 5th Marines, enduring heavy artillery fire, charged across the airfield and secured it. Pressing on, they reached the eastern side of the island, cutting off the Japanese defenders to the south. Over the next several days, these troops were reduced by the 7th Marines. Near the beach, Pullers 1st Marines began attacks against The Point. In bitter fighting, Pullers men, led by Captain George Hunts company, succeeded in reducing the position. Despite this success, the 1st Marines endured nearly two days of counterattacks from Nakagawas men. Moving inland, the 1st Marines turned north and began engaging the Japanese in the hills around Umurbrogol. Sustaining serious losses, the Marines made slow progress through the maze of valleys and soon named the area Bloody Nose Ridge. As the Marines ground their way through the ridges, they were forced to endure nightly infiltration attacks by the Japanese. Having sustained 1,749 casualties, approximately 60% of the regiment, in several days fighting, the 1st Marines were withdrawn by Geiger and replaced with the 321st Regimental Combat Team from the US Armys 81st Infantry Division. The 321st RCT landed north of the mountain on September 23 and began operations. A U.S. Marine Corps Chance Vought F4U-1 Corsair aircraft attacks a Japanese bunker at the Umurbrogol mountain on Peleliu with napalm bombs. US Marine Corps Supported by the 5th and 7th Marines, they had a similar experience to Pullers men. On September 28, the 5th Marines took part in a short operation to capture Ngesebus Island, just north of Peleliu. Going ashore, they secured the island after a brief fight. Over the next few weeks, Allied troops continued to slowly battle their way through Umurbrogol. With the 5th and 7th Marines badly battered, Geiger withdrew them and replaced them with the 323rd RCT on October 15. With the 1st Marine Division fully removed from Peleliu, it was sent back to Pavuvu in the Russell Islands to recover. Bitter fighting in and around Umurbrogol continued for another month as the 81st Division troops struggled to expel the Japanese from the ridges and caves. On November 24, with American forces closing in, Nakagawa committed suicide. Three days later, the island was finally declared secure. Aftermath One of the costliest operations of the war in the Pacific, the Battle of Peleliu saw Allied forces sustain 2,336 killed and 8,450 wounded/missing. The 1,749 casualties sustained by Pullers 1st Marines nearly equaled the entire divisions losses for the earlier Battle of Guadalcanal. Japanese losses were 10,695 killed and 202 captured. Though a victory, the Battle of Peleliu was quickly overshadowed by the Allied landings on Leyte in the Philippines, which commenced on October 20, as well as the Allied triumph at the Battle of Leyte Gulf. The battle itself became a controversial topic as Allied forces took severe losses for an island that ultimately possessed little strategic value and was not used to support future operations. The new Japanese defensive approach was later used at Iwo Jima and Okinawa. In an interesting twist, a party of Japanese soldiers held out on Peleliu until 1947 when they had to be convinced by a Japanese admiral that the war was over.

International Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

International Law - Essay Example This paper shall critically evaluate the means by which a territory can become a state. This essay is being written in order to arrive at a thorough and extensive assessment of statehood, especially, in relation to territory. Discussion Much debate and conflict have been seen owing to the right of a state to claim statehood. To this very day, different territories are trying to claim statehood and independence from their mother states. These claimants have even waged violent conflicts with their mother states in their bid for independence and statehood. Their belief revolves around the fact that since they fulfil the elements of statehood, they deserve to be recognized as independent states. These beliefs are however often rebuked by their mother states who often claim that these territories are not independent states, and for as long as they have sovereignty over it, international bodies cannot recognize them as independent states. The means by which a territory can later become and be recognized as a state are basically focused on the four elements. After these elements are established, the processes of international laws have to be applied in order to secure recognition for the territory as a state. Based on Article 1 of the Montevideo Convention, a state, in order to be recognized as a person of international law, must possess the following elements: a permanent population; a defined territory; government; and the capacity to enter into relations with other states. Traditionally, many states were able to gain recognition via international bodies by fulfilling the above basic requirement, as well as the requirements of sovereignty and independence (UIO Faculty of Law, 2010). A territory can become a state by first having a sufficient number of people to make up a population. Different authors and scholars support this basic premise because it is a natural requirement for subsistence. There is no specific requirement as to the number of inhabitants only that, this population needs to be sufficient in the conduct of state functions (Shaw, 2003, p. 179). This population also needs to be permanently based on the territory. It is this qualification which disqualifies Antarctica for statehood. It does not have a permanent population. At different points of the year, explorers from different countries enter the continent, but they do not settle therein permanently and they eventually return to their own states (Fry, Goldstein, & Langhorne, 2002, p. 457). Conversely, even as Somalia’s population is not permanent, with its nomad residents drifting in and out of its territory, it still is considered a state because the people have the ultimate intention of going back (Fry, Goldstein, & Langhorne, 2002, p. 457). It is also important to note that there is also no requirement for the people to have common linguistic, ethnic, cultural, or historical characteristics. The size of the population does not also matter. Vatican City is a small stat e with a small population, but it is able to function and carry out its responsibilities and roles as a state (Fry, Goldstein, & Langhorne, 2002, p. 457). In order for a territory to be qualified for statehood, its population only needs to fulfil the minimum requirements of permanency and be of a sufficient number to carry out duties of statehood. This qualification for statehood is actually one of the easier elements to fulfil, and is often the least source of controversy for territories seeking statehood. Government

Sources of capital Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sources of capital - Assignment Example Another way through which NFPs raise funds is Grant funding which includes the funds that are awarded to NFPs by the government sector or by organizations that are charitable in nature (Landskroner, 2002). For example World Health Organization may provide a local NGO located in Pakistan with funds for the eradication of poverty in deserving areas of Pakistan. Both For Profit and NFPs can even use Loan financing and equity capital to raise funds for business. Loan financing refers to the money that is borrowed by an organization from another financial organization such as the banks (Zelman, 2009). Equity finance is the capital that is raised by both the organizations by the sale of certain amount of shares of the organization to external investors. Trading or sale of assets is even means through which both kinds of organizations raise capital. Trading is the sale of goods and services in return for money and fixed assets are the assets such as land and furniture that may be sold by or ganizations to raise capital. All these sources have finance have various pros as well as cons associated with them. The main advantage of raising funds through fundraising activities is that the money that is raised does not need to be returned and the organization does not need to provide an account of where and how it was spend. But the downside of this method is that holding fundraising programs is quite expensive. In case of grants, the money does not need to be returned but the not for profit organization has to provide an account of where and how the money was spent. The upside of loan financing is that ample amount of money can be raised at a very small period of time but the loan repayment makes the method expensive. In case of equity, there is an increase in partnership due to which the not for profit organization may lose its sight of working for the wellbeing of others. The problem with trading and sale of fixed assets is that there are certain tax

John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism Essay Example for Free

John Stuart Mill and Utilitarianism Essay Abstract The paper presents the life of John Stuart Mill through his biography. A glimpse on his exceptional life as a child was also included in his biography. Likewise, his major contributions as a philosopher and economist were also discussed. Since John Stuart Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, the paper focuses its discussion on Mill and utilitarianism. The views of John Stuart Mill on utilitarianism and how it differs from Bentham’s views were given much attention in the paper. The history of utilitarianism was also presented to show how utilitarianism evolved. The confusions of many people, regarding who the real founder of utilitarianism, was clarified through the history of utilitarianism. Introduction John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), is a British philosopher-economist, who is the son of James Mill. He is one of the best 19th century thinkers. In economics, he was influenced by the theories of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Thomas Robert Malthus, and his Principles of Political Economy is a little more than a restatement of their ideas. He had a great impact on 19th century British thought, not only in philosophy and economics but also in the areas of political science, logic, and ethics. He was a proponent of utilitarianism. He systematized the utilitarian doctrines of his father and Jeremy Bentham in such works as Utilitarianism (1863), basing knowledge upon human experience and emphasizing human reason. In political economy, Mill advocated those policies that he believed most consistent with individual liberty, and he emphasized that liberty could be threatened as much by social as by political tyranny. He is probably most famous for his essay â€Å"On Liberty† (1859). He studied pre-Marxian socialist doctrine, and, although he did not become a socialist, he worked actively for improvement of the conditions of the working people. Utilitarianism is a philosophy which has been around for centuries, and is still active and popular in the modern world. It is important not only in philosophy itself, but in disciplines such as economics, political science, and decision theory. To some people, Utilitarianism seems to be the only ethical philosophy which is obviously correct. To others, it seems to be quite misconceived, even reprehensible. Biography of John Stuart Mill. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) was a British philosopher, economist, moral and political theorist, and administrator. He was the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth century. His views are of continuing significance, and are generally recognized to be among the deepest and certainly the most effective defenses of empiricism and of a liberal political view of society and culture. The overall aim of his philosophy is to develop a positive view of the universe and the place of humans in it, one which contributes to the progress of human knowledge, individual freedom and human well-being. John Stuart Mill was born on May 20, 1806 in Pentonville, London. He was the eldest son of James Mill, a Scottish philosopher and historian who had come to London and become a leading figure in the group of philosophical radicals which aimed to further the utilitarian philosophy of Jeremy Bentham. His mother was Harriet Barrow, who seems to have had very little influence upon him. Mill was educated by his father, with the advice and assistance of Jeremy Bentham and Francis Place. He was given an extremely rigorous upbringing, and was deliberately shielded from association with children of his own age other than his siblings. His father, a follower of Bentham and an adherent of associationism, had as his explicit aim to create a genius intellect that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after he and Bentham were dead. John Stuart Mill as a child was exceptional. At the age of three he was taught the Greek alphabet and long lists of Greek words with their English equivalents. By the age of eight he had read Aesop’s Fables, Xenophon’s Anabasis, and the whole of Herodotus, and was acquainted with Lucian, Diogenes Laertius, Isocrates and six dialogues of Plato. He had also read a great deal of history in English and had been taught arithmetic. At fifteen, John Stuart Mill undertook the study of Benthams various fragments on the theory of legal evidence. These had an inspiring influence on him, fixing in him his life-long goal of reforming the world in the interest of human well-being. At the age of seventeen, he had completed advanced and thorough courses of study in Greek literature and philosophy, chemistry, botany, psychology, and law. In 1822 Mill began to work as a clerk for his father in the examiners office of the India House. In 1823, he co-founded the Westminster Review with Jeremy Bentham as a journal for philosophical radicals. This intensive study however had injurious effects on Mills mental health, and state of mind. At the age of twenty-one, he suffered a nervous breakdown. This was caused by the great physical and mental arduousness of his studies which had suppressed any feelings or spirituality he might have developed normally in childhood. Nevertheless, this depression eventually began to dissipate, as he began to find solace in the poetry of William Wordsworth. His capacity for emotion resurfaced, Mill remarking that the â€Å"cloud gradually drew off†. In 1851, Mill married Harriet Taylor after 21 years of an at times intense friendship and love affair. Taylor was a significant influence on Mills work and ideas during both friendship and marriage. His relationship with Harriet Taylor reinforced Mills advocacy of womens rights. He died in Avignon, France in 1873, and is buried alongside his wife. John Stuart Mill and the Classical School of Thought Classical economics starts with Adam Smith, as a coherent economic theory, continues with the British economists Thomas Robert Malthus and David Ricardo, and culminates in the synthesis of John Stuart Mill, who as a young man was a follower of David Ricardo. Among the classical economists in the three-quarters of a century, although they have differences of opinion between Smiths Wealth of Nations and Mills Principles of Political Economy (1848), the members of the group still agreed on major principles. All believed in private property, free markets, and, in Mills words, that â€Å"only through the principle of competition has political economy any pretension to the character of a science. † They shared Smiths strong suspicion of government and his ardent confidence in the power of self-interest represented by his famous â€Å"invisible hand,† which reconciled public benefit with individual pursuit of private gain. From Ricardo, classicists derived the notion of diminishing returns, which held that as more labor and capital were applied to land, yields after â€Å"a certain and not very advanced stage in the progress of agriculture steadily diminished. † Through Smiths emphasis on consumption, rather than on production, the scope of economics was considerably broadened. Smith was optimistic about the chances of improving general standards of life. He called attention to the importance of permitting individuals to follow their self-interest as a means of promoting national prosperity. History of Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is a fairly old philosophy, and major elements of it are even older. The best known, and most prolific, utilitarian philosophers were Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832), and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). In their time, utilitarianism was a significant philosophical movement in Britain, and the utilitarians were some of the leading social reformers of the time. John Stuart Mill, especially, is quite well known today. Many people seem to think, unfortunately, that utilitarianism began with Bentham and ended with Mill. This is quite wrong in two ways. First, Bentham was not the first utilitarian, although he did coin the word utilitarianism. Various pre-Benthamite philosophers were advocating utilitarian positions several decades before Bentham was born. Also, utilitarianism has a lot in common with ancient non-utilitarian philosophers, such as Mo Tzu and Jesus. Both of these people advocated a doctrine of universal love. These doctrines were not precisely stated enough to compare directly with utilitarianism, but they were definitely universalist and egalitarian, and had strong currents of consequentialism, welfarism, and (at least in the case of Mo Tzu) maximization. The second problem with the popular misconception is that there has been a great deal of development in utilitarianism since Mill. Some people are aware, for example, of the later developments of Preference Utilitarianism and Rule Utilitarianism. Mill is still usually regarded as the main resource on Utilitarianism, though. Part of the problem is that he wrote about it comprehensively, and there have been few good comprehensive books about utilitarianism since then. Modern utilitarianism is in many ways far more sophisticated than that of Mill. Most importantly, it has become connected with many developments in areas such as economics, political science, and decision theory. Utilitarianism has always enjoyed an essentially unique position as the only philosophy which applied to all areas of human endeavor in a reasonably straightforward endeavor, and committed to specific positions on how conflict between various interests should be resolved. In Mills time, utilitarianism was strongly linked to economics, although the two disciplines subsequently diverged. Today, Preference Utilitarianism as a theory underlies many ideas in the sciences, and has been formalized to a degree that Mill never dreamed of. The idea of utility maximization even has applications entirely outside of philosophy, such as its use in artificial intelligence to represent how a computer could make trade-offs between different goals. Utilitarianism today exists both as a powerful kind of formal reasoning, and as the philosophy which says that such reasoning should define the moral ideal in human affairs. Utilitarianism can even be formally derived from a set of four reasonable seeming axioms, something that no other major philosophy can claim. The modern state of utilitarianism in relation to other philosophies is actually quite unusual. Most philosophies exist in theoretical isolation, based on ideas which have little in common with ideas in other disciplines. Other disciplines, in turn, dont have much formal contact with them. Most major philosophies have a significant presence in politics and social issues, with people explicitly referring to issues such as rights and equality when debating how society should be organized. Utilitarianism, on the other hand, exists mostly in the background of popular discourse. People who claim to follow other philosophies often make utilitarian arguments when it suits them, and utilitarian arguments are often used by people who wouldnt claim to follow any specific philosophy at all. Many philosophers make sure to explicitly place their ideas in opposition to utilitarianism, as if it were always lurking in the background ready to pounce on the unsuspecting theory. In part, this may be because utilitarianism is a sort of philosophical hydra, growing a new position for each one that is dismissed. While specific utilitarian ideas are vulnerable to attack, the underlying sentiments have proven amazingly resilient and have evolved to remain entirely current. Throughout the twentieth century, many philosophers confidently predicted that utilitarianism had been devastated, and would soon fall out of favor only to be disproved when it remained as popular as ever. Utilitarian perspectives have also been quietly adopted in domains ranging from economics, political science, and decision theory to cognitive science and artificial intelligence. This has given modern utilitarianism a powerful formulation like no other, and a strong applied tradition. The old questions of how to measure utility, and how to maximize it most effectively in practice, have been extensively researched outside of philosophy. The result of this is that while other philosophies often talk in general terms of how they should be applied, and have problems in resolving conflicts between various principles, utilitarianism is at the cutting edge of rigorously applicable principles. Which is still, it should be mentioned, far from perfect. John Stuart Mill on Utilitarianism Utilitarianism is the most influential moral philosophy in the last two centuries. Jeremy Bentham is the acknowledged founder of utilitarianism. He admitted however that he took over the principle of utility from David Hume. By stating categorically that there is an ultimate good – a summum bonum, John Stuart Mill, the most famous utilitarian, laid the foundation of his moral philosophy. According to Mill, all moral actions should be aimed at attaining this good. Mill insists that this good is happiness. According to the Greatest Happiness Principle, †¦ the ultimate end, with reference to and for the sake of which all other things are desirable – whether we are considering our own good or that of other people – is an existence exempt as far as possible from pain, and as rich as possible in enjoyments, both in point of quantity and quality†¦ ( Boyce, p. 36) Mill states his teological position by insisting that the rightness of an action is determined by the actual consequences. It cannot be done by simply examining the nature of the act alone. The real value of our actions depends on whether it promotes the good or not. The creed which accepts as the foundation of morals Utility or Greatest Happiness Principle holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness. Wrong, as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain, by unhappiness, pain and the privation of pleasure. (Boyce, p. 36) Mill differs radically from Bentham on two important points. He is vehemently against the purely quantitative treatment of the principle of utility. According to Mill, we have to admit that some pleasures are intrinsically superior to others. He disdainfully said: It is better to be a human being dissatisfied, than a pig satisfied; better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, is of a different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question. The other party to the comparison knows both sides. (Solomon, p. 310 ) To confirm his point, Mill cites Epicurus (341-270 B. C. ) who also espoused the view that while the good life is the life of pleasure, he does not mean only bodily and sensual pleasure alone. These are higher forms like intellectual and spiritual pleasure. According to both philosophers some pleasures are intrinsically superior to others. When there are some issues that arise about the criterion for judging the quality of pleasure. Mill argues that: If I am asked what I mean by difference of quality of pleasures, or what makes one pleasure more valuable than another, merely as a pleasure, except its being greater in amount, there is but one possible answer. Of two pleasures if there is be one to which all or almost all who have experience of both give a decided preference, irrespective of a feeling of moral obligation to prefer it, that is the more desirable pleasure. If one of the two is, by those who are competently acquainted with both, placed so far above the other that they prefer it, even though knowing it to be attended with a greater amount of discontent, and would not resign it for any quantity of the other pleasure which their name is capable of, we are justified in ascribing to the preferred enjoyment a superiority in quality so far outweighing quantity as to render it, in comparison of small account. (Solomon, pp. 297-298). The example given by Mill is Socrates who is acquainted with both bodily pleasure and intellectual pleasure. If you ask which pleasure is more desirable, obviously, according to Mill, Socrates will choose intellectual pleasure. So the criterion for judging which pleasure is better than another must be made by a judge who has experienced both kinds of pleasures. Indeed, Mill is calling for an inter-subjective consensus of people who experienced both types of pleasure. The introduction of quality of pleasure added undue complication to Bentham’s quantitative calculus. The higher pleasure consists of the more intellectual, artistic and even spiritual, like reading poetry, speculating about the nature or the cosmos, enjoying of music and the visual arts etc. as opposed to the more sensual and physical, like eating good food, indulging in sex and other physical stimulation. It must be mentioned though, that Mill is not excluding the lower pleasure from consideration. But obviously, he personally prefers the higher pleasures. Remember that it is the pig that provides the model for lower pleasure; in contrast, it is Socrates who exemplifies the quest for higher pleasures. Mill’s proof on the soundness of the principle of utility: The only proof capable of being given that an object is visible is that people actually see it. The only proof that a sound is audible is that people actually hear it; and so the other sources of our experience. In like manner, I apprehend, the sole evidence is it possible to produce that anything is desirable that people do actually desire it†¦ no reason can be given why the general happiness is desirable, except that each person, so far as he believes it to be attainable, desire his own happiness. (Solomon, p. 319 ). This proof has been the subject of debate among utlilitarian scholars. According to Solomon, the most generous interpretation of Mill’s proof are the following: one’s own happiness or pleasure is the only thing desired by each person; the general happiness or the happiness of all is the only thing desired for itself by all; the only test of something being desirable is its being desired; the general happiness is the only thing desired in itself; and lastly, the only test of the rightness or wrongness of actions is their tendency to promote the general happiness (the greatest happiness for the greatest number). Summary and Conclusion John Stuart Mill, being a philosopher and an economist had a great impact in the 19th century british thought not only in the field of philosophy and economics but also in other areas of political science, logic, and ethics. His exceptional childhood because of his father’s rigorous training had injurious effects on his mental health, and state of mind. Nevertheless, his father was able to create a genius in him that would carry on the cause of utilitarianism and its implementation after the death of his father and Bentham. One of the important works of John Stuart Mill was Utilitarianism, which argues for the philosophy of Utilitarianism. This philosophy was primarily formed by Jeremy Bentham, but Mills father James Mill was also a proponent. Utilitarianism holds that actions are good in proportion to the amount of happiness produced and number of people happiness is produced in. Mills main innovation to Utilitarianism is the idea of a hierarchy of pleasures. Bentham had treated all forms of happiness as equal, whereas Mill argued that intellectual and moral pleasures and developments were superior to more physical forms of pleasure. His views are of continuing significance, and are recognized to be among the deepest and certainly the most effective defenses of empiricism and of a liberal political view of society and culture. The overall aim of his philosophy is to develop a positive view of the universe and the place of humans in it, one which contributes to the progress of human knowledge, individual freedom and human well-being. His views are not entirely original, having their roots in the British empiricism of John Locke, George Berkeley and David Hume, and in the utilitarianism of Jeremy Bentham. But he gave them a new depth, and his formulations were sufficiently articulate to gain for them a continuing influence among a broad public. References: ACUNA, A. E. 2001. Philosophical Analysis. 5th Edition. U. P. Department of Philosophy. Diliman, Quezon City. Autobiography by John Stuart Mill. http://www. utilitarianism. com/jsmill. htm. BOYCE, W. D. 1978. Moral Reasoning. University of Nebraska Press. London. MONTGOMERIE, I. 2000. A Utilitarian FAQ. http://www. ianmontgomerie. com /manifesto/utilitarian. SOLOMON, R. C. Morality and the Good Life. 1984. McGraw-Hill Book Company. New York. Webster’s Family Encyclopedia. 1999. Vol. 6. Archer Worldwide Inc. Great Neck, New York, U. S. A.

Voltaire Exposes the Fallacy of Optimism in Candide Essay -- Optimism

Voltaire was the French author of the novella Candide, also known as "Optimism" (Durant and Durant 724). Famous as a playwright and essayist, Voltaire’s Candide is the book where he tries to point out the fallacy of Gottfried William von Leibniz's theory of Optimism. He uses satire, and techniques of exaggeration to contrast highlight the evil and brutality of war and the world in general when men are meekly accepting of their fate. Leibniz, a German philosopher and mathematician of Voltaire's time, developed the idea that the world they were living in at that time was "the best of all possible worlds." This systematic optimism shown by Leibniz is the philosophical system that believed everything already was for the best, no matter how terrible it seemed. In this satire, Voltaire also used contrast in the personalities of the characters to convey the message that Leibniz's philosophy should not be dealt with any seriousness. Leibniz, sometimes regarded as a Stoic or Fatalist because his philosophies were based on the idea that everything in the world was determined by fate, theorized that God, having the ability to pick from an infinite number of worlds, chose this world, "the best of all possible worlds." Although Voltaire chose that simple quality of Leibniz's philosophy to satirize, Leibniz meant a little more than just that. Even though his philosophy stated that God chose "the best of all possible worlds," he also meant that God, being the perfection he is, chose the best world available to him, unfortunately it was a world containing evil. It seems as though Voltaire wanted to ridicule Leibniz's philosophy so much that he chose to satirize only the literal meaning and fatal acceptance of evil of Leibniz's philosophy. ... ...ell. When Candide is reunited with both he realizes that he was right not to lose hope. In essence, it was Candide's optimism that keeps him from a state of total dejection, maintaining his sanity during troubled times. Candide eventually achieves happiness with his friends in their simple, yet full, lives. The book's ending affirms Voltaire's moral that one must work to attain satisfaction. Work helps Candide overcome his tragedies and enables him to live peacefully and in contentment. The message of Candide is: "Don't rationalize, but work; Don't utopianize, but improve. We must cultivate our own garden, for no one is going to do it for us" (Richter 161). Works Cited Bottiglia, William. "Candide's Garden." Voltaire: A Collection of Critical Essays. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968. Richter, Peyton. Voltaire. Boston: Twayne Publishers, 1980.

Ethical and Legal Issues in nursing Essay

The nursing regulatory body, the Nursing and Midwifery Council requires all registered nurses to have an understanding of the ethical and legal principles which underpin all aspects of nursing practice(NMC,2010). A comprehensive understanding of current legal and ethical frameworks facilitates the delivery of appropriate skilled nursing care. The purpose of this assignment will be to critically discuss an episode of care encountered whilst on clinical placement. The episode of care involves the covert administration of medication to an elderly patient. The decision to covertly administer the medication will be critically assessed in this assignment. The Gibbs(1988) reflection model will be used to guide the discussion. The discussion will also consider the legal, ethical and professional issues surrounding covert medication. In the mental health sector, medication non-adherence remains a serious health-care problem with far-reaching ramifications for patients, their relatives and health-care professionals. Harris et al. (2008) found that between 40 and 60% of mental health patients fail to adhere to their medication treatment plan. This number increased to 50 and 70% for elderly patients with dementia, and between 75 to 85% among patients with schizophrenia and bi-polar disorders. In such cases, where the patient’s well being is at risk and the treatment is essential, health-care professionals may resort to disguising medications in food and drink. The medication is crushed or liquefied and mixed with foodstuff. This practice of concealment is called covert medication(NMC,2008). By covertly administering medication, the patient consumes a drug without the required informed consent. The Gibbs(1988) reflection model has been chosen for the purpose of this assignment as it allows the author to reflec t and think systematically about the episode of care. The initial stage of Gibbs’ reflective cycle is ‘Description’; in which the author is required to describe the events which occurred. In order to comply with the NMC(2010) code of conduct and guidelines on patient confidentiality, the patient will be called Mr Walker. Mr Walker, an 80-year-old service user was temporary placed at the respite care home. Mr Walker had severe dementia, and was  unable to communicate effectively. He frequently resisted all essential nursing care. Mr Walker’s medical history also included hypertension and angina. He was prescribed blood pressure medication (enapril tablets) to stabilise his blood pressure and to reduce the risk of stroke and heart attacks. He was also prescribed diuretics and medication to prevent further angina attacks. Mr Walker frequently refused to take his medication; spitting out the tablets and refusing to swallow. The nurse in charge, concerned about the deterioration of Mr Walker’s health, considered the option to covertly administer his medication. The MDT held a meeting and reached the decision to covertly administer Mr Walker’s medicat ion. The second stage of the Gibbs’ reflective cycle is ‘Feelings’, requiring the author to briefly discuss her reactions and feelings. The author felt the decision to covertly administer medication was morally correct and ethically permissible. The author refers to the deontology ethical theory to support her thoughts and feelings. The NMC code of conduct considered by Beckwith and Franklin(2011) as a model of rule deontology states that all health-care professionals should â€Å"safeguard and promote the interests and well-being of patients†. The act of covertly administering medication could therefore be deemed morally correct. The practitioners intended on acting in the best interest of Mr Walker irrespective of the consequences of their actions (breaching patient autonomy). Their actions promoted and safeguarded Mr Walker’s health and well-being. Husted (2008) argues that from a deontological point of view, violating an individual’s autonomy is sometimes necessary to promote the individual’s best interest. In this case it could therefore be ethically permissible to covertly administer medication without Mr Walker’s consent. The medication is essential and promotes Mr Walker’s long-term autonomy and safeguards his health and well-being. Similarly, the ethical princip les of beneficence and non-maleficence could be used to justify the use of covert-medication (Wheeler 2008). The principle of beneficence is an ethical principle derived from the duty to provide benefits and to consider the benefits of an action against the risk. According to Masters(2005), health-care practitioners have a professional duty and an ethical obligation to carry out positive actions with the aim of safeguarding their patient’s health and well-being. With this notion in mind, covert medication could be morally justified if it safeguards the  welfare of the patient. In this case, the discontinuation of medication would have had a detrimental effect on Mr Walker. Thus administering the medication covertly was in accordance with the principle of beneficence. In this case, one could also argue that the medication was actually acting as an autonomy restoring agent (Wong et al,2005). Mr Walker’s autonomy was restored in that he was relieved of severe pain. The medication also worked by improving his quality of life. Several studies on the chemical and physical restrain t of aggressive dementia patients also often show a preference to covert medication (Treolar et al,2001). Covert medication is often considered the least ‘restrictive’ and ‘inhumane’ way of administering medication when considering alternatives like physical and technical restraint to administer medication by force (Engedal,2005). Such alternatives to covert medication are unsafe and can have long lasting negative psychological effects on the patient (Wong et al, 2005). However, covert medication is not without its shortcomings. The team was deceiving Mr Walker, an already confused, poorly, frail, weakened and vulnerable individual. In the Dickens et al(2007) study, many patients expressed this view of covert-medication as an act of deception. They considered covert medication as an extremely coercive practice violating their personal rights. This resultantly damaged the therapeutic nurse-patient relationship and patients felt they were no longer in a safe, therapeutic environment. The nursing ethical principle of non-maleficence is similarly relevant to this discussion. It requires practitioners to safeguard their patients’ welfare by not inflicting pain or harm (Koch et al,2010). This requirement poses serious ethical dilemmas. It is difficult to uphold this ethical standard as all forms of medical intervention entail some element of harm. Koch et al,(2010) suggest that perhaps for the harm caused to be ethically permissible it should be pr oportional to the benefits of the medical treatment. The author thus feels that covert medication in Mr Walker’s case could be ethically justified under these ethical principles. The author will now focus on the ‘Analysis’ stage of Gibbs’ reflection model. Here, the author will critically analyse the events which occurred including the decision making process and the decision itself. The author will firstly discuss the issue of consent in relation to covert medication. The covert administration of medication is indeed a complex issue. It derives from the  essential principles of consent and patient autonomy which are deeply rooted in the UK statute, common law and the Human Rights Act 1998 (Lawson and Peate,2009). The UK law clearly considers bodily integrity a fundamental human right; a mentally competent adult has the right to refuse medical treatment regardless of how essential the treatment is to their health and well being (Kilpi, 2000). The freedom of choice which is reinforced by the ethical principle of respect for autonomy is an important right. The NMC(2008) further highlights in the Code that it is the nurses’ professional, legal and ethical duty to respect and uphold the decision made by the patient. If a nurse administers covert medication to a mentally competent individual, the nurse will be acting unethically (disregarding autonomy) and in breach of the law which could constitute grounds for trespass, assault or battery (NICE,2014), as shown in the cases R v SS [2005] and R v Ashworth Hospital [2003]. Thus practitioners have a professional, legal and ethical duty to respect the autonomous wishes of each patient. In Mr Walker’s case an MDT meeting was held prior to the covert administration of medication to consider Mr Walker’s lack of consent and his mental capacity to consent. The MDT consisted of: the general practitioner, psychiatrist, junior house officer, nurse-in-charge, home-manager, occupational-therapist, physio-therapist, speech and language therapist, pharmacist, dementia nurse specialist, student nurse, and two relatives. By holding an MDT meeting, the practitioners were acting in accordance with local policies and guidelines. The NICE(2014) guidelines state that health-care practitioners have a legal duty to investigate and take into account the patient’s wishes, as well as the views of their relatives, carers and other practitioners involved in the patient’s care. By consulting with the relevant parties, the decision made will be, â€Å"based on what the person would have wanted, not necessarily what is best for their physical or mental health†(Latha,2010). Latha thus argues that decisions based on the patient’s wishes show some respect for the patient’s autonomy and are much more ethical than isolated decisions to covertly administer medication. As such, a failure to consult the relevant parties may constitute a breach of legal, professional and ethical duty as shown in the Gillick v West Norfolk  Health case (Nixon,2013). However, the Dickens et al, (2007) study shows that nurses frequently administer covert medication without any prior discussion with the MDT, relatives or even the pharmacist. Such practice has led to some nurses being disciplined and charged with various offences (Wong et al,2005). Under UK law, covert medication could be legally justified and considered ethical if the patient is admitted to the hospital under the Mental Health Act (1982). It could also be justified if it is shown that the patient lacks capacity under the Mental Capacity Act(2005). The MCA(2005) introduced the 2 stage capacity test. This 2 stage-capacity-test was used by the MDT in Mr Walker’s case. The MCA test required the MDT to consider whether Mr Walker’s cognitive impairment rendered him mentally incompetent to make treatment decisions. The physician used the MacArthur Competence Assessment Tool for Treatment (MacCAT-T) and the Mini-Mental Status Examination tool (MMSE) to assess Mr Walker’s cognitive function and his capacity to consent. The MacCAT-T interview tool was used to assess Mr Walker’s ability to (1) understand his medical condition and the benefits/ risks of the medical treatment (2) his ability to appreciate this information (3) his reasoning ability and (4) his ability to communicate and express his decision. The results showed Mr Walker as mentally incompetent and lacking the capacity to consent. Mr Walker was (1) unable to understand the information given to him regarding his treatment (2) he was unable to retain or weigh up the information given to reach a decision (3) he was unable to communicate his decision effectively even when encouraged to use non-verbal communication such as blinking or squeezing a hand. The Mini-Mental Status Examination (MMSE) tool was also used by the physician to assess Mr Walker’s cognitive function. Mr Walker following the assessment scored a low score of 12 on the MMSE. The MDT provided further clinical evidence (screening tools, clinical data, memory tests , medical imaging results).There were some disadvantages associated with using the MacCAT-T assessment tool. The MacCAT-T tool itself does not give ‘cut off scores’ to clearly ascertain the boundary between capacity and incapacity. This is certainly a limitation. As shown in the Palmer et.al. (2002) study, this can lead to some patients with low scores being wrongly assessed as lacking capacity. The MacCAT-T tool also fails to recognise the emotional aspects of decision making (Stoppe, 2008). It assumes that people only rely on a  rational, analytic, rule-based thought process to make decisions. Breden and Vollman (2004) thus argue that, â€Å"the restriction to only logical rationality runs the risk of neglecting the patient’s normative orientation†. Other factors including situational anxiety, severity of the medical condition, medication could also impact on a person’s ability to articulate their decision making process. Furthermore, assessment tools like the MacCAT-T tool, largely depend on the clinician’s ability to carry out a clinical interview with the patient. It requires the physician to make an isolated evaluation and decision. Isolated judgements and evaluations can be unreliable as they can be influenced by factors such as subjective impressions, professional experience, personal values, beliefs and even ageism as shown in the Marson et.al. empirical study (Sturman,2005). In the study only 56% of physicians who participated in the capacity assessment of patients were able to agree on a capacity judgement. Many physicians found that they were unable to agree due to differences in medical experience, personal beliefs and subjective impressions. Such empirical evidence certainly questions the reliability of capacity assessment tools. Following on, effective communication skills were essential at this first stage of the capacity assessment as the team was required to consider whether Mr Walker was likely to recover capacity. Effective communication is certainly important in such MDT settings as, â€Å"effective communication, which is timely, accurate, complete, unambiguous, and understood by the recipient, reduces errors and results in improved patient safety† (Bretl,2008). Several studies have shown ineffective communication as a contributing factor in medical error cases (Rothschild, 2009). Through effective communication, each member of Mr Walker’s MD team understood the discussion at hand and was thus able to contribute new suggestions and solutions. The team implemente d communication skills such as negotiation, listening and goal setting skills.The MDT with input from Mr Walker’s relatives concluded that a best interest decision would have to be made on Mr Walker’s behalf. The general practitioner made it clear that the best interest decision would have to comply with the UK legal framework. The European Convention of Human Rights (ECHR) requires the medical treatment given to be respectful to the patient (Pritchard, 2009). In discussing Mr  Walker’s case, it was firstly established (during the medication review), that the treatment in question had both ‘therapeutic necessity’ and ‘therapeutic effects’ for the patient. The MDT when making a best interest decision also considered the risks and benefits of treatment in accordance with the ECHR requirements. The ECHR states that the medical treatment should not be given in a sadistic, inhumane or degrading manner (Human Right Review,2012). Similarly, the NICE(2014) guideline states that the harm that would be caused by not administering the medication covertly, must be greater than the harm that would be caused by administering the medication covertly. This requirement was satisfied by the practitioners in Mr Walker’s case. An in-depth risks and benefits assessment was carried out. The pharmacist’s input was essential at this stage. The pharmacist presented an evidence-based argument; discussing the essential medication with medical necessity. The pharmacist also provided guidance on the most appropriate form of administration; for example he suggested prescribing enapril in its liquid form (enaped). The pharmacist also provided guidance on the most appropriate method of administration; for example; not mixing the medication with large portions of food or liquid. Following this discussion with the pharmacist, a best interest decision was made to covertly administer Mr Walker’s medication. It was important for the MDT to consult with the pharmacist. The method of crushing, smashing tablets or opening capsules which is a commonly used when covertly administering medication is an unlicensed form of administration (NMC, 2008). It can inflict harm by altering the therapeutic properties which can cause adverse reactions and fatalities. When using this unlicensed method of administration, the practitioner is also unable to establish whether the patient has received the prescribed amount. If the patient is not receiving the correct dosage required for his treatment, the treatment is ineffective (Wong et al,2005). The pharmacist should therefore be consulted with. However, as demonstrated by the McDonald et al,(2004) study pharmacists are rarely consulted with. In the study, 60% of nurses working in UK care homes admitted to crushing tablets on each drug round to help patients with swallowing difficulties without firstly consulting with a pharmacist. Fortunately, in Mr Walker’s case, the pharmacist was able to provide guidance on the most appropriate method of administration. Following on, in such cases where the patient is  proven to lack capacity to consent to medical treatment, the Mental Capacity Act promotes the use of ‘best interest decisions’. In Mr Walker’s case, the MDT reached a ‘best interest’ decision to covertly administer his medication. However, there are some problems associated with the practice of relying on ‘best interest decisions.’ Baldwin and Hughes (2006), highlight the numerous problems associated with making best i nterest decisions. In their empirical study, Baldwin and Hughes found that practitioners and relatives often evaluate a patient’s quality of life differently. The results showed the poor performance of relatives and practitioners at predicting patients’ medical treatment preferences. Differences in cultural backgrounds, professional experiences, values and beliefs mean that decisions made may actually go against what the patient would have wanted. The failure to consider the patient’s values and believes was found to be a common occurrence in the Dickens et al,(2007) study. In this study, 18% of the nursing staff interviewed admitted that they would be willing to covertly administer medication to even those patients with capacity to consent, regardless of their values and beliefs, if the treatment was essential for their well-being. The legal framework in the UK was indeed established with the aim of safeguarding the welfare of the incapacitated person. However, with such results, it remains unclear the extent to which health-care professionals are actually adhering to the legal requirements. The Mental Health Foundation(2012) argues that the MCA, â€Å"needs revising to enable more effective ‘best interests decisions’ by health and social care staff.† In its investigation, the Mental Health foundation found that although a large number of health-care staff found the MCA to be an effective tool in ba lancing the ethical principle of autonomy and safeguarding patients lacking capacity, 63% of health-care practitioners felt the definition of mental capacity was not made clear, with many expressing the view that the legal framework does not â€Å"encompass the complexity of capacity assessments in practice† (MHF, 2012). The Griffith (2008) study and the Roy et al. (2011) further found that due to this lack of understanding, a large number of mental-health patients were wrongly assessed as lacking capacity, depriving them of their personal rights. These results suggest that health-care professionals perhaps require further training and education about the legality and practicalities of covert  medication. When used without the correct legal safeguards in place, covert medication undoubtedly becomes an extremely paternalistic unlawful and unethical practice. Following the anonymous ‘best interest’ decision to covertly administer Mr Walker’s medication. The decision making process was clearly documented; the mental capacity assessment, the best interest decision, method of administration (stating explicitly that the least restrictive method will be used) were all documented in Mr Walker’s care-plan and medication-chart. Accurate documentation and record keeping is essential as it safeguards service users’ human rights and ensures that health care professionals follow the legal framework as well as local policies and guidelines. Article 6 of the HRA, ‘right to a fair and public hearing’, also requires clinical records to be comprehensible, clear and concise so that they can be referred to if needed in a fair and public hearing. Following the MDT meeting, Mr Walker’s care plan was frequently discussed and reviewed by the MDT in monthly formal review meetings in compliance with local policies and guidelines. NICE (2013) guidelines state that it is important to frequently review covert medication decisions. Each individual is different and an individual’s mental state and capacity can change over time. By carrying out the monthly formal review meetings, the practitioners safeguard their client’s rights by ensuring that covert medication is still the most appropriate, lawful and ethical method of administration. In conclusion, the nurses of today certainly practice in a complex health care system. It is thus essential for nurses to have a good understanding of the ethical principles which underpin good nursing practice. In the nursing literature, nurses are often described as the â€Å"moral agents† of the health-care system (Sellman,2011). This means that nurses should value ethical reasoning; acting in such a way which balances good intentions against risk and the best outcome. Through good ethical reasoning nurses are able to promote patient comfort, patient’s safety, ease suffering, and promote patient welfare to enhance recovery. The covert administration of medication should therefore not be an isolated decision, it should comply with the legislation, ethical principles, local policies and guidelines. Bibliography The National Institute for Clinical Excellence, (2014). Managing medicines in care homes. [online] NICE. Available at: http://www.nice.org.uk/media/B5F/28/ManagingMedicinesInCareHomesFullGuideline.pdf [Accessed 17 Apr. 2014]. Beckwith, S. and Franklin, P. (2011). Oxford handbook of prescribing for nurses and allied health professionals. 1st ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Breden, T. and Vollmann, J. (2004). The cognitive based approach of capacity assessment in psychiatry: A philosophical critique of the MacCAT-T. Health Care Analysis, 12(4), pp.273–283. Bretl, A. (2008). Patient safety rounds. 1st ed. Oak Brook, Ill.: Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations. Nursing and Midwifery Council, (2010). The Code. [online] NMC. Available at: http://www.nmc-uk.org/Documents/Standards/nmcTheCodeStandardsofConductPerformanceAndEthicsForNursesAnd- Midwives_LargePrintVersion.PDF [Accessed 16 Apr. 2014]. Dickens, G., Stubbs, J. and Haw, C. (2007). Administering medication to older mental health patients. Nursing times, 103(15), pp.30-31.Engedal, K. and Kirkevold, O (2005). Concealment of drugs in food and beverages in nursing homes: cross sectional study. BMJ, 330(7481), p.20.Equality Human Rights (2012). Article 3: Freedom from torture and inhumane and degrading treatment or punishment. [online] Available at: http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/uploaded_files/humanrights/hrr_article_3.pdf [Accessed 12 Apr. 2014]. Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing. 1st ed. [London]: FEU. Griffith, R. and Tengnah, C. (2008). Mental Capacity Act 2005: assessing decision-making capacity 2. British journal of community nursing, 13(6), pp.284-293.Harris, N., Baker, J. and Gray, R. (2009). Medicines management in mental health care. 1st ed. Chichester, U.K.: Wiley-Blackwell. Hughes, J. and Baldwin, C. (2006). Ethical issues in dementia care. 1st ed. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Husted, J. and Hust ed, G. (2008). Ethical decision making in nursing and health care. 1st ed. New York: Springer Pub. Co.Koch, S., Gloth, F. and Nay, R. (2010). Medication management in older adults. 1st ed. Totowa, N.J.: Humana. Latha, K. (2010). The noncompliant patient in psychiatry: The case for and against covert/surreptitious medication. Mens sana monographs, 8(1), p.96. Lawson, L. and Peate, I. (2009). Essential nursing care. 1st ed. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Wiley-Blackwell. Leino-Kilpi, H. (2000). Patient’s autonomy, privacy, and informed consent. 1st ed. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Macdonald, A., Roberts, A. and Carpenter, I. (2004). De facto imprisonment and covert medication use in general nursing homes for older people in South East England. Ageing clinical and experimental research,16(4), pp.326-330. Masters, K. (2005). Role development in professional nursing practice. 1st ed. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett. Mental Health Foundation, MCA Code of Practice needs revising to enable more effective best interests decisions to be made. (2012). MHF News Archieve, [online] p.1. Available at: http://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/our-news/news-archive/2012/12-01-31/ [Accessed 12 May. 2014]. Nixon, V. (2013). Professional practice in paramedic, emergency and urgent care. 1st ed. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. NMC, (2008). Standards for medicines management. [online] Available at: http://www.nmc-uk.org/Documents/NMC-Publications/NMC-Standards-for-medicines-management.pdf [Accessed 16 Apr. 2014]. Palmer, B., Nayak, G., Dunn, L., Appelbaum, P. and Jeste, D. (2002). Treatment-related decision-making capacity in middle-aged and older patients with psychosis: a preliminary study using the MacCAT-T and HCAT.The American journal of geriatric psychiatry, 10(2), pp.207-211. Pritchard, J. (2009). Good practice in the law and safeguarding adults. 1st ed. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Rothschild, A. (2009). Clinical manual for diagnosis and treatment of psychotic depression. 1st ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Pub. Roy, A., Jain, S., Roy, A., Ward, F., Richings, C., Martin, M. and Roy, M. (2011). Improving recording of capacity to consent and explanation of medication side effects in a psychiatric service for people with learning disability: audit findings. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities, 15(2), pp.85-92.Sellman, D. (2011). What makes a good nurse. 1st ed. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers. Stoppe, G. (2008). Competence assessment in dementia. 1st ed. Wie n: Springer. Sturman, E. (2005). The capacity to consent to treatment and research: a review of standardized assessment tools. Clinical psychology review, 25(7), pp.954-974. Treloar, A., Beats, B. and Philpot, M. (2000). A pill in the sandwich: covert medication in food and drink.Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 93(8), pp.408-411. Treloar, A., Beats, B. and Philpot, M. (2000). A pill in the sandwich: covert medication in food and drink.Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 93(8), pp.408-411. Wheeler, K. (2008). Psychotherapy for the advanced practice psychiatric nurse. 1st ed. St. Louis, Mo.: Mosby Elsevier. Wong, J., Poon, Y. and Hui, E. (2005). I can put the medicine in his soup, Doctor!. Journal of medical ethics,31(5), pp.262-265.

Context in Frankenstein and Blade Runner Essay

The context of the time of writing is an integral part of a text’s composition and ideas. This notion is evident in Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1818) and Ridley Scott’s 1982 science fiction film, Blade Runner. They both address ideas contemporary at the time, but are both interconnected through a common questioning of what may happen if humans attempt to play god. As a romanticist, Shelley condemns Frankenstein’s intrusive attempt to play the creator. Scott spurns man’s ruthless ambition through a dystopian environment created through ruthless quest for profit by commercially dominant, greedy corporations. Both texts employ techniques such as allusion and characterisation to depict similar dystopian visions ensuing from man’s dereliction of nature. Composed during the Industrial Revolution at a time of increased scientific experimentation, Shelley warns and forebodes her enlightened society of the consequences which come about from playing god. She uses Victor Frankenstein as her platform, whose self-exalting line â€Å"many excellent natures would owe their being to me† represents a society engrossed with reanimation. Recurring mythical allusions to Prometheus, â€Å"how dangerous is the acquirement of knowledge† portray Victor as a tragic hero; a noble character whose â€Å"fatal flaw† of blind ambition ultimately results in his own downfall and dehumanization, â€Å"swallowed up every habit of my nature†. In addition, Victor’s impulsive rejection of his grotesque creation, leads to the Monster’s rebellion (â€Å"vowed eternal hated and vengeance to all mankind†). Despite the mismatch in time and context, Scott also incorporates similar elements of horror, but procures a man-made cataclysm that is a product of his own desire to achieve commercial dominance. Unlike Shelley’s moralistic warning, the flames in the opening scene highlight a dystopian world that has already reached an undesirable outcome. Revising Victor’s undermining of God’s prerogative, Scott conveys Tyrell’s capitalist fixation through his mantra â€Å"commerce is our goal†. The composer reinforces this through multiple low angle shot of Tyrell’s monolithic corporation, highlighting its command over its depressing urban surroundings. By doing so, Scott denounces the arrogance of corporate giants and their reckless disregard for the proletarians. Furthermore, Scott’s reflection of a society engulfed within Cold-war paranoia of a potential nuclear disaster is depicted through Tyrell’s violent death at the hands of his own creation, Batty. Here, Tyrell’s scream as Roy ruptures his myopia-riddled eyes, a metaphor of his blind ambition, creates an ambience of utmost horror as responders construe how man’s hubristic desire to achieve utmost power results in his destruction. However, unlike Shelley’s critique of heedless scientific pursuit, Scott’s perspective has shifted to that of man’s capitalist voracity and is a reflection upon the 20th century’s rapid expansion of multinational corporations. In comparison to Shelley’s discourse, Scott’s manifestation of a plain, industrialised world is his suspicion that technological progression has already discerned man’s divergence from nature. In the film’s opening sequence, Scott portrays his dystopian society through film-noir style of perpetual darkness, where the superficial world’s only source of illumination is from the glow of man-made neon lights. Moreover, the composer’s representation of a world ravaged by technological expansion is symbolised through the absence of authentic fauna and their substitution with artificial fauna. However, in light of Shelley’s embrace of sublime nature, Scott also conveys how the presence of nature can facilitate the hope of spiritual renewal; proposing its entire restoration. The composer denotes this through his transient but vivid depiction of Deckard’s fleeting unicorn dream. Contrary to Shelley, however, Scott’s depiction of nature within a subliminal dream is metaphorical of his belief that rapid technological innovation has already superseded the position of nature. Therefore the film’s 20th century context encompassing fears ecological degradation evokes his admonition that rapid technological progression may already have made impossible a possible return to nature.

101 Ideology, Responding, and Structure Professor Ramos Blog

101 Ideology, Responding, and Structure What is an Argument? Quick Write In academia we use the word argument when referring to writing. What do you think we mean by argument? What is the difference between an argument and a fight? What is an Argument? Contradiction? Claims, reasons, and evidence. Argument – a reason or set of reasons given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong. Paraphrase Our book does not cover paraphrase in detail. What is a paraphrase? What is the difference from a summary or quoting? Summary v Paraphrase v Quoting Paraphrase means putting what you have read into your own words. You paraphrase by reading something, thinking about what it means, and then restating it in your own words. Paraphrasing is a useful strategy to check to be sure that you have understood when reading something difficult or something that is important to remember. If you cannot paraphrase after reading, it is important to go back and reread to clarify information. You are going to be paraphrasing as we learn about Ideology. Ideology What is ideology? A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. â€Å"the ideology of republicanism† In social studies, a political  ideology  is a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths, or symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group that explains how society should work, and offers some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order. The set of ideas and beliefs of a group or political party. Jonathan Haidt: Can a Divided America Heal? 20 Minutes. Jon Haidt is a Social Psychologist. Write down anything you think is important or that stands out to you. Write down any words you don’t know so we can make a list for everyone. So the first thing that you have to always keep in mind when you’re thinking about politics is that we’re tribal. We evolved for tribalism. One of the simplest and greatest insights into human social nature is the Bedouin proverb: â€Å"Me against my brother; me and my brother against our cousin; me and my brother and cousins against the stranger.† Summarize Write for three minutes on the point that stood out to you. What did the author say?   Try to with hold your opinion in the summary portion. We will respond next. Responding Templates The book includes many templates. Including to  Disagree p. 60,  Agreeing p. 62, and  Agreeing and Disagreeing Simultaneously p. 64. Write a response using the templates in chapter 4. Why did we do this exercise? Show, Don’t Tell The writing you do at this level should do the work, instead of you having to tell us. No more lines like: In this essay†¦ My narrative is about†¦ Building Structure Focus on events in your story. What events help you to tell your story? First Event Next Event Next Event Final Event Do tell us what you went through. Show us what happened. Place us there with you. Four Frames You have four frames to tell us the story. What scenes will you include? What details will you want to draw into each scene? Details are important when telling a story. It helps your readers see what it is you are telling them. Homework Take everything we did today and use it to write your draft. Bring a full draft for tomorrow to peer review.

International System of Measurement (SI)

International System of Measurement (SI) The metric system was developed at the time of the French Revolution, with standards set for the meter and kilogram on June 22, 1799. The metric system was an elegant decimal system, where units of like type were defined by the power of ten. The degree of separation was relatively straightforward, as the various units were named with prefaces indicating the order of magnitude of the separation. Thus, 1 kilogram was 1,000 grams, because kilo- stands for 1,000. In contrast to the English System, wherein 1 mile is 5,280 feet and 1 gallon is 16 cups (or 1,229 drams or 102.48 jiggers), the metric system had obvious appeal to scientists. In 1832, the physicist Karl Friedrich Gauss promoted the metric system heavily and used it in his definitive work in electromagnetics. Formalizing Measurement The British Association for the Advancement of Science (BAAS) began in the 1860s codifying the need for a coherent system of measurement within the scientific community. In 1874, the BAAS introduced the cgs (centimeter-gram-second) system of measurements. The cgs system used the centimeter, gram, and second as base units, with other values derived from those three base units. The cgs measurement for the magnetic field was the gauss, due to Gauss earlier work on the subject. In 1875, a uniform meter convention was introduced. There was a general trend during this time to make sure that units were practical for their use in the relevant scientific disciplines. The cgs system had some flaws of scale, especially in the field of electromagnetics, so new units such as the ampere (for electrical current), ohm (for electrical resistance), and volt (for electromotive force) were introduced in the 1880s. In 1889, the system transitioned, under the General Convention of Weights and Measures (or CGPM, the abbreviation of the French name), to have new base units of meter, kilogram, and second. It was suggested starting in 1901 that introducing new base units, such as for electrical charge, could complete the system. In 1954, the ampere, the Kelvin (for temperature), and the candela (for luminous intensity) were added as base units. The CGPM renamed it to the International System of Measurement (or SI,  from the French Systeme International) in 1960. Since then, the mole was added as the base amount for substance in 1974, thus bringing the total base units to seven and completing the modern SI unit system. SI Base Units The SI unit system consists of seven base units, with a number of other units derived from those foundations. Below are the base SI units, along with their precise definitions, showing why it took so long to define some of them. meter (m) - The base unit of length; determined by the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second.kilogram (kg) - The base unit of mass; equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram (commissioned by the CGPM in 1889).second (s) - The base unit of time; duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state in the cesium 133 atoms.ampere (A) - The base unit of electrical current; a constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circuit cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newtons per meter of length.Kelvin(degrees K) - The base unit of thermodynamic temperature; the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water (the triple point is the point in a phase diagr am where three phases coexist in equilibrium). mole (mol) - The base unit of substance; the amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilograms of carbon 12. When the mole is used, the elementary entities must be specified and may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons, other particles, or specified groups of such particles.candela (cd) - The base unit of luminous intensity; the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 x 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian. SI Derived Units From these base units, many other units are derived. For example, the SI unit for velocity is m / s (meter per second), using the base unit of length and the base unit of time to determine the length traveled over a given period of time. Listing all of the derived units here would be unrealistic, but in general, when a term is defined, the relevant SI units will be introduced along with them. If looking for a unit that isnt defined, check out the National Institute of Standards Technologys SI Units page. Edited by Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.

Equations of motion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Equations of motion - Assignment Example In rotational motion, the forces generate angular acceleration as well as where the point where the force is applied. Thus, angular acceleration is generated by torque. Torque is the product of the applied force and the moment arm, (N-m). Its magnitude is expressed as . In order to understand angular motion, an experiment was set to investigate the rotation motion of objects. The objective of the experiment was to utilize the knowledge in physics in performing it without the assistance of computer simulation to measure time and determine and predict the velocity of a rotating object. Angular motion can be described through the use of linear velocity and acceleration. But it is not convenient to use the same since the linear velocity and acceleration are dependent on the distance from a rotation axis. Angular quantities can thus be used to describe rotational kinematics and dynamics in complete analogy with linear dynamics and kinematics. The angular displacement of a solid disk rotating about a fixed axis is the angle at which the disk turns. The convention is that a displacement is positive if clockwise and negative when counterclockwise. The unit of measurement is the radian (rad), which is dimensionless. A radian is the ration of the arc length to the radius. The total arc length around a complete circle is the circumference, and thus there are 2 radians in 360Â °. Therefore, one radian is equal to 57.3Â °. Angular velocity is the rate of change of an angle with respect to time, and it is the same for all parts of a rotating body. It is a vector quantity and thus, its direction is along the axis of rotation. Its unit is radians/second. Angular acceleration is the rate of change of this velocity and is expressed

The Influence of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on the Economic Essay

The Influence of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) on the Economic Growth of the Host Economies - Essay Example ects of FDI on economic growth in host countries greatly depend upon the local conditions and contexts of doing business there: for example, human capital enhances the positive effects of FDI on host economies, while the existing technology gaps make it possible to implement even the simplest foreign direct investment reforms (Wang, Gu, Tse & Yim, 2012). Added to this is the role which market size plays in attracting FDI to host countries, whereas technology-absorptive abilities predetermine host returns from FDI (Li & Liu 2005; Blalock & Gertner 2008). These results have far-reaching implications for policy development and implementation, although all risks and factors changing the nature of FDI inflows to host countries need to be thoroughly considered. Even more interesting are the results of another study conducted in the three major countries-recipients of FDI. These include Malaysia, Chile, and Thailand (Chowdury & Mavrotas 2007). Again, the researchers confirm that the effects of FDI on economic growth are very heterogeneous and primarily depend upon the level of GDP in host countries (Chowdury & Mavrotas 2007). At least in Thailand and Malaysia, the relationship between GDP and FDI is very explicit (Chowdury & Mavrotas 2007). Again, these findings have far-reaching implications for policymaking, since understanding causality between FDI and economic growth is crucial for the creation of policies that encourage the inflow of investments from abroad in the developing world. Both studies confirm the importance of the FDI-economic growth causality but also imply that the nature of this causality and its direction should be placed under professional scrutiny. As long as the effects of FDI on economic growth in host countries are characterized by considerable...This essay outlines the difficulties in establishing the functional relationships of FDI influence on economic growth in host countries. One of the greatest problems in this respect is the lack of suff icient empirical data. Another difficulty is the lack of organization and poor systematization of the existing knowledge. Theoretically, FDI promotes economic growth through an increase in investment volumes, leading to increased efficiency of all economic and financial operations. Another theory suggests that economic growth is a direct result of the technological diffusions caused by FDI. Objectively, there is no single explanation to the effects of FDI on economic growth: numerous variables moderate the relationship between FDI and economic growth in host countries, and the current knowledge of financial markets and macro/microeconomics does not allow producing a comprehensive theory of FDI and its impacts on host countries’ economies. In order to understand how and why FDI impacts host countries’ economic growth, the meaning of both terms needs to be clarified. For the goal of this paper, foreign direct investment is defined as â€Å"the process whereby residents of one country (the source country) acquire ownership of assets for the purpose of controlling the production, distribution, and other activities of a firm in another country. FDI impacts economic growth through structural effects, skill and technology, and size effects. TNC play a huge role in the transfer of capitals and skills from one country to another.